The arrival of European powers transformed Indian trade, politics and society, beginning with maritime exploration and commercial competition.

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• The arrival of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498 established a direct sea route between Europe and India, initiating sustained European commercial expansion.
• The Portuguese were the first European power to establish fortified trading centres along the Indian coastline, seeking monopoly over lucrative spice trade networks.
• Governors like Francisco de Almeida implemented the Blue Water Policy to secure naval dominance in the Indian Ocean region.
• Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa in 1510 from the Sultan of Bijapur, making it the headquarters of Portuguese administration.
• The Dutch formed the Dutch East India Company in 1602 and focused primarily on commercial profits rather than territorial expansion.
• The English East India Company received a royal charter from Elizabeth I in 1600, marking the beginning of organized British trade in India.
• The French established the French East India Company in 1664, with Pondicherry emerging as their principal settlement.
• Ultimately, British naval superiority, industrial advancement and political stability enabled the English East India Company to establish colonial dominance in India.