Under British rule, India’s agrarian economy was heavily exploited through a range of land revenue systems. These systems—Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari—were designed to maximize colonial profits. Though structured differently, they all burdened Indian farmers, disrupted traditional landholding patterns, and severely impacted rural livelihoods and food security.

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• British taxed Indian agriculture to fund administration, trade, wars
• Systems introduced: Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari, Taluqdari, Malguzari
• Land revenue became main income source for British India
• Permanent Settlement (1793) fixed revenue; Zamindars collected tax, kept share
• Ryotwari (1820) gave land rights to peasants; direct tax collection; high burden
• Mahalwari (1822) taxed village (Mahal) as unit; headman collected; semi-collective model
• High taxes forced switch from food to cash crops; food shortages, famines followed
• Land became marketable asset; rise in moneylenders, rural debt
• Handicraft industry declined as peasants lost income; artisans turned farmers
• Resulted in inequality, bonded labor, exploitation of farmers